Resolving Resource-Based Conflict in Somaliland
After decades of political upheaval in greater Somalia, land tenure systems in Somaliland State lie in grim disarray. Years of national civil war steadily eroded traditional systems of managing land and resources and resolving conflict, the young state government has since failed to replace or return these systems, and poverty has meanwhile run rampant throughout. These three conditions in concert have opened the gate to a mass scramble for dwindling natural resources that now poses great threat to the people of Somaliland, to her environment, to economic growth and to prospects for lasting peace.
Agriculture, both rain-fed and irrigated, for food crops and fodder, is slowly eating away grazing land. Diaspora returnees are bringing newly acquired enthusiasm for the business of sedentary agriculture, while livestock herders destitute from the war are turning to farming out of desperation. As agriculture expands its hold over the countryside, pastoralists and farmers are increasingly coming into conflict over scarce land and water. The devastated rural economy, victim of war, drought and a livestock export ban, drives the poor to any means for survival. Forests, one of the few remaining resources in Somaliland left to exploit, are now falling at ecologically suicidal rates to the axes of loggers and charcoal burners.
Somaliland's traditional methods of conflict resolution are becoming increasingly unreliable. Conflicts are many, varied and complex, and often extend beyond the narrow clan ties upon which traditional intervention relies.
Somaliland is awash with small arms; in some areas, unemployed youth are readily available as 'guns-for hire.' Skirmishes quickly escalate into endlessly spiraling vendettas due to the ubiquity of deadly weapons and inadequate policing. Government forces are weak, under-funded and undisciplined.
These overwhelming problems prompted the Academy for Peace and Development (APD), in partnership with WSP International, to help Somaliland government institutions establish policies and laws to tackle the underlying causes of these conflicts, improve natural resource management systems and help build peace in the region.
From a strong foundation in participatory action research methodology, the project sought specifically to bring together all public stakeholders to dissect, debate and discuss conflicts over natural resources, raise public awareness of and involvement in the issue, develop a concrete plan of action to address the causes and finally begin to reverse the environmental and societal devastation.
At a National Group Meeting held in Hargeisa in November 2004 - the first in a series of APD led workshops on natural resource based conflicts in Somaliland - key decision makers, professionals, experts and civic and traditional leaders met to begin discovering the underlying causes of such conflicts, and in particular those surrounding charcoal, in an attempt to find sustainable solutions.
Key issues
The first question to ask when formulating plans, policies and regulations governing natural resource management: Who controls the resource? Before the civil war, authority over the use and ownership of natural resources rested firmly in the hands of the omnipotent, if undemocratic and often unjust central government. With the collapse of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 and the emergence of a budding, inexperienced state government in Somaliland, the situation has a taken a turn for the worse. Increasing urbanisation, settlement, sedentarisation and fencing have diminished available grazing land and, with it, pastoralists' hopes for a return to traditional livelihoods.
There are no clear government policies or laws governing natural resource use, and little or no room for development programmes in Somaliland's official budget. The private sector has tried to fill the gap, making significant investments in education, health care, communication and trade. Government encourages these efforts, but rarely coordinates them to improve efficiency or impose basic minimum standards. The same is true of aid agency projects.
Fencing rangeland
The increasing prevalence of fenced enclosures in traditional pasturelands and the growth of sedentary agriculture are two of the most important causes of natural resource-based conflict in Somaliland. To the west and southwest of Hargeisa, for example, pastoralists from Alleybadey District on the Ethiopian side of the border can no longer seek water and pasture for their livestock in neighbouring vicinities in Somaliland because of the proliferation of fences and farms in the area. Violent conflicts are common.
Burning forests for fuel
Charcoal is the primary source of fuel for Somaliland's 160,000 urban households, which consume nearly 5 million bags of charcoal each year. Forests everywhere are retreating visibly from the periphery of human settlements. Charcoal production has increased dramatically since the imposition of the 1998 livestock export ban forced pastoralists to scramble for economic alternatives. To make matters worse, rural communities are also switching to charcoal as the more compact, convenient and cleaner-burning fuel. The export trade has added another dramatic dimension to the problem, increasing both local profit margins and production demands to such an extent that traders now employ fully armed militia for protection. Bloody encounters are reported regularly in the media.
Settling around water
Water is vital to pastoral livelihoods, and in its pursuit roaming pastoralists are unlikely to respect artificial barriers placed in their way, especially in times of great need. When the prize is a dwindling resource that both need to survive and thrive, conflicts between mobile pastoralists and sedentary farmers seem inevitable. Water points have proliferated steadily since the British colonial administration first established communal earth dams along the Ethiopian border in the 1950s, in the process encouraging the growth of settlements - and the attendant erosion of topsoil, destruction of trees and acceleration of desertification. And the need for water still grows. In Somaliland's fragile and often harsh semi-arid environment, the clear end result of the rush for scarce resources is ecological and economic devastation.
Implications for Peace
As annual rainfall levels decrease and become more sporadic, the movement of animals beyond traditional boundary lines is increasingly provoking hostility from host communities. With Somaliland's rule of law still in its infancy and societal fragmentation from years of civil strife yet to completely heal, such conflicts over resources will continue to lie at the heart of any attempt to build peace.
Key Recommendations
Clear policy and law: Pastoralists need free mobility and access to water and pasture; expanding settlements threaten the viability of pastoralist livelihoods. The land tenure situation in Somaliland calls for thorough and rigorous understanding before formulating realistic laws and policies that can address all aspects of land ownership and access.
Living incomes: A variety of rangeland trees produce valuable gums and resins, such as Acacia Senegal (gum Arabic) but the pastoral community has never been made aware of their commercial potential. With greater awareness, living trees could become a valuable and renewable source of income.
Regional cooperation: The charcoal issue has grown so pervasive and complex that regional dialogue and regulation is now necessary. Rising tensions along the borders with Puntland to the east and Ethiopia to the south could lead to war. All parties must reach a common understanding of the problem, and together develop a common approach to seeking solutions.
Efficient use: Existing technologies, such as energy-saving stoves and machines that turn waste charcoal dust into briquettes, can help make more efficient use of charcoal and thus reduce overall demand.
Alternative fuels: There are several promising alternatives to charcoal, including potentially rich local coal deposits and technologies harnessing solar and wind energy. Nearly 90% of Somaliland's urban households rely on charcoal as their main source of energy, and will continue to do so until the cost of these and other alternatives such as kerosene and LPG can be lowered through tax breaks and other subsidies, distribution networks can spread to compete with charcoal's convenience, and public awareness rises. Doing away with the charcoal trade entirely is not feasible, but alternative fuels can reduce both the demand and the environmental damage.
Community involvement: With a weak central government and conflicting land use laws the situation is unlikely to improve without the involvement of local communities. Working groups from the APD workshop series recommended the formation of locally initiated district or village associations to help regulate access to grazing areas and forests, establish community-controlled reserves and initiate reforestation projects. Government can assist by establishing national parks and game reserves to serve as sanctuaries for vegetation and wildlife now being decimated through poaching and the expansion of human settlements.
Achievements and Lessons Learned
Raising awareness, encouraging action: Two APD-produced video documentaries on natural resource-based conflict have aired repeatedly on local TV. The visual impact of charcoal's extensive environmental toll and evidence of the sheer enormity of the trade struck a chord among many audiences, including the government. These and other broadcasts on the subject led to the formation of a National Task Force of Ministers, nominated by the President, to look into the problem and potential solutions.
Showcasing solutions: An APD-led exhibition presenting alternatives to charcoal - including efficient charcoal stoves and kilns, solar technologies and a locally assembled, affordable and easy-to-maintain 3KW wind generator - was a valuable exercise in drawing public attention to practical problem-solving. Hands-on demonstrations of this nature inspire action, collaboration and the spread of solutions in a way that discussion alone often cannot.
Breaking down barriers: Inspired by partners' earlier efforts, APD and another local NGO, Haqsoor, successfully assisted local communities to remove enclosures in Borama, one of Somaliland's most fenced and settled districts. After lengthy deliberations at an open local public dialogue session to discuss the issue and work toward consensus, all villagers agreed that the enclosures should be removed; many volunteered their own time and labour. Local committees were formed to ensure that the fences do not return.
Empowering pastoralists: With the pastoral community marginalised in all matters of policy, the continuous encouragement of a more participatory, enabling and empowering approach will be a major priority. The planned formation of a National Pastoral Forum and grassroots pastoral associations will be central to achieving this goal, helping to strike a balance between local initiatives and those of international organisations and government authorities at district, regional and national levels.
Conclusion
As Somaliland's demand for charcoal grows, priority must go to the sustainable management and use of the forest resources that provide fuel, fodder and essential environmental services such as soil protection, biological diversity and carbon sequestration. The main challenge will be to strike a precarious balance between competing demands for land and resources, and in the process bring together diverse groups and interests in one common cause: finding concrete and lasting solutions to the charcoal crisis.
http://www.apd-somaliland.org/docs/exsum_rbc_engl.htm
http://samotalis.blogspot.com/
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